As Madam Cho’s words came to an end, another person began to speak.
“The ancient sages, when teaching their disciples, did so through questions and discussions, not by corporal punishment, did they not? The point is not to abolish corporal punishment entirely, but to minimize it as much as possible. That, in fact, would be a more effective way to teach our children.”
The discussion continued for a while, but the consensus eventually leaned towards ‘minimizing corporal punishment.’
* * *
The next major debate revolved around the concepts of ‘A Woman Must Follow Her Husband’ and ‘The Three Obediences.’ (Note 1)
The debate began with Madam Cho’s statement.
“It is my belief that teaching ‘A Woman Must Follow Her Husband’ and ‘The Three Obediences’ indiscriminately is not appropriate.”
“Why do you think so?”
Many of the male participants were surprised by Madam Cho’s question, expressing shock on their faces.
It was unexpected because Madam Cho, known for her fidelity and virtue, was criticizing ‘A Woman Must Follow Her Husband’ and ‘The Three Obediences.’
Responding to the question, Madam Cho calmly explained her reasoning.
“‘A Woman Must Follow Her Husband’ and ‘The Three Obediences’ are not included in the ‘Three Bonds and Five Relationships’.”
“Really?”
* * *
The ‘Three Bonds and Five Relationships’, represent the three cardinal principles and five virtues that one must adhere to in Confucianism.
The Three Bonds are the relationships between ruler and subject, parent and child, and husband and wife, indicating the duties that must be upheld in each. The Five Relationships outline the ethical standards that one must follow as a human being.
* * *
Madam Cho continued in her usual composed tone.
“The reason I fulfilled my duties as a faithful wife and virtuous widow is because my late husband fulfilled his duties towards me. As the head of the family, he adhered to the principles of ‘The father is the model for his son)’ and ‘The husband is the support for his wife’, and he observed the ‘The distinction between husband and wife’ from the Five Relationships, ensuring that we respected each other’s boundaries. It was because he fulfilled his duties that I was able to fulfill mine.”
“Ah…”
Upon hearing Madam Cho’s words, many nodded in agreement, especially the virtuous widows and dutiful wives, who almost unanimously showed their assent. After taking a moment to collect her breath, Madam Cho continued.
“But what do we see in the capital today? How many are there who do not uphold human decency themselves yet demand it from their partners?”
At this, a few coughed awkwardly. Madam Cho, undeterred, pressed on with a pointed remark.
“Even the lowest of ruffians claim to uphold a code of honor. If they can do so, then insisting solely on ‘A Woman Must Follow Her Husband’ or ‘The Three Obediences’ in such times can only be harmful.”
“Honor, you say…”
“Though it may seem like a convoluted discussion, it all comes down to honor. The division of honor among parents, children, and spouses is what forms the basis of the ‘Three Bonds’ and ‘Five Relationships.’ Therefore, the most crucial task is to ensure a thorough education in these principles.”
Despite the controversy sparked by Madam Cho’s bold statements, the women largely held the upper hand. This was largely because most of the female attendees who supported Madam Cho were themselves recognized as virtuous widows and dutiful wives, providing a strong foundation for their stance. Additionally, these virtuous women had endured all manner of hardships to uphold their families’ honor, developing a resilience that was not easily matched by those who had merely pursued academic studies.
***
Ultimately, without an easy resolution in sight, the matter escalated to King Sejong.
The debate among the ministers who heard the story was no less intense. Surprisingly, the Chief State Councillor and the Chief Scholar came out in support of Madam Cho.
“It is only natural that the Three Bonds and Five Relationships should be upheld first! There is nothing wrong with Madam Cho’s words!”
“Indeed! Nowhere in the Three Bonds and Five Relationships are ‘A Woman Must Follow Her Husband’ and ‘The Three Obediences’ mentioned!”
With the Chief State Councillor and the Chief Scholar, known for their stringent adherence to Confucian values, supporting Madam Cho, another voice added weight to their argument.
“As Madam Cho said, unless the duties represented by the Three Bonds and Five Relationships are fulfilled, ‘A Woman Must Follow Her Husband’ and ‘The Three Obediences’ will only serve as shackles. This will turn into a greater poison in the distant future.”
Ultimately, King Sejong issued a formal decree.
– ‘A Woman Must Follow Her Husband’ and ‘The Three Obediences’, being adjuncts to the Three Bonds and Five Relationships, are not as crucial! Exclude this part!
“Sigh, does this reduce the potential for future criticism?”
Muttering to himself, recalling the gender debates of the 21st century, Hyang suddenly realized something he had forgotten.
‘Damn it! The textbooks need to be reprinted!’
***
However, King Sejong’s decision sparked immense controversy.
“Even if the world changes, ‘A Woman Must Follow Her Husband’ and ‘The Three Obediences’ are virtues that all women must uphold!”
“Indeed! We must inform His Majesty of this injustice!”
Not only the staunchly conservative scholars but also the more moderate conservatives were united in their opinion this time and began drafting petitions.
The uproar was not confined to the scholars.
Among the general populace, too, word spread, stirring similar sentiments.
“What’s this? Are we regressing to the Goryeo era?”
“Is it like the song from ‘Ssanghwajeom’ playing all over again?”
The lyrics of the song from ‘Ssanghwajeom’ went as follows: “I went to a dumpling shop and the Mongolian owner grabbed my wrist; I went to a temple and the head monk grabbed my wrist; I went to draw water from the well and the dragon of the well grabbed my wrist.” This metaphorically referred to sexual acts.
The song hinted at the promiscuous sexual culture of the time, leading many scholars to derogatorily refer to it as ‘words of mutual pleasure between men and women.’
One of the main criticisms that Neo-Confucian scholars founding Joseon had against Goryeo was this very licentious sexual culture.
In an effort to eradicate it, they sought out and honored virtuous widows and dutiful wives, promoting ‘A Woman Must Follow Her Husband’ and ‘The Three Obediences’.
“When the hen crows, the house will fall,” they say. “A woman should just listen to the man’s words at home…”
“Exactly. It seems the King has made a grave mistake this time.”
While the men murmured among themselves, the women also had their say.
“Oh really? What did His Majesty say? That the duties of humanity come first, right? And what are these men doing after the harvest? Drinking, gambling, and fooling around with women, and then they talk nonsense!”
“Acting all high and mighty when they can’t even keep their eyes off a pretty maid…”
* * *
During the agricultural off-season, many men would engage in gambling.
While some stayed at home making ropes or preparing for the next farming season, for the majority of peasants, spending their surplus time drinking and gambling was a routine part of the off-season.
This scene was also typical in the rural areas of South Korea in the 20th century, even before the military government initiated the Saemaul (New Village) Movement.
Following King Sejong’s decree, the incidence of gambling during the off-season decreased as people were mobilized for water management works. However, this had unintended consequences.
The wages earned from these public works projects became stakes for even larger gambling games.
The authorities were vigilant in cracking down on gamblers and peasants involved in these games, but gambling persisted stubbornly.
The homes of the scholars were no quieter. In fact, they were even more tumultuous.
The cause of the uproar was the issue of concubinage.
The issue of concubinage often led to discord, and the most effective tool to quell such disputes was based on ‘A Woman Must Follow Her Husband’ and ‘The Three Obediences’, encapsulated in the ‘Seven Grounds for Divorce’.(Note 2)
Indeed, compared to the later Joseon period, the status of women was relatively higher in the early Joseon era.
Divorce was more accessible compared to later times, and in matters of inheritance, sons and daughters had equal rights.
Yet, Sejong’s decision still faced significant backlash.
* * *
As the situation developed, even the ministers began to suggest a retraction of their stance quietly.
“Your Majesty, while Your Majesty’s intentions are undoubtedly just, it appears the timing may not be right. Might it be prudent to postpone this matter for now?”
To Chief State Councilor Lee Jik’s suggestion, King Sejong firmly shook his head.
“There will be no postponement.”
“But the circumstances…”
As Lee Jik faltered, King Sejong cut him off with a brief remark.
“If we always acted according to the current trends, the position of Chief State Councillor would still be held by the criminal Ryu Jeong-hyeon.”
“…”
At King Sejong’s words, the ministers fell silent.
“What are the Three Bonds and Five Relationships? They are the most fundamental duties that a person must observe, the very essence. ‘A Woman Must Follow Her Husband’, ‘The Three Obediences’? As I’ve said before, these are secondary. If the people do not adhere to the most basic duties, what use is there in enforcing these two?”
“…”
The ministers remained silent.
“How can a man who indulges in debauchery demand his wife to observe her duties, or a woman who engages with multiple men demand her husband to observe his? The most important are the Three Bonds and Five Relationships! It is only when the Three Bonds and Five Relationships are firmly established that we can proceed to the next steps!”
“…”
“Ah! Did Madam Cho not say it was about loyalty, not just duty? That is the correct answer! In life, one must have loyalty!”
No one among the ministers dared to counter King Sejong’s words.
While King Sejong’s statements were principled, they were undeniably correct.
Ultimately, King Sejong had to issue another royal proclamation.
– While ‘A Woman Must Follow Her Husband’ and ‘The Three Obediences’ are important, they are secondary. The primary and most essential duties that one must adhere to as a person are the Three Bonds and the Five Relationships. Merely reciting passages from the ‘Liji (Book of Rites)’ or the ‘Yili (Book of Etiquette and Ceremonial)’ without truly upholding these principles is akin to building a pagoda on sand!
Therefore, the most important teachings in the schools for the common people should be the Three Bonds and the Five Relationships!
This is because they represent the fundamental duties and loyalties that everyone must observe!
Faced with King Sejong’s firm response, the scholars had no choice but to remain silent.
“Continuing to argue will only make us look like the fools from last year.”
“The King was thought to be wise, but now it seems otherwise. Even if not now, he is creating a snare that will strangle future generations…”
* * *
The ministers shared a similar sentiment to the scholars.
At the Office of Royal Decrees, Heo Jo voiced his concerns with a worried tone.
“This matter is a great mistake by His Majesty. While there is no issue with His Majesty and the Crown Prince being wise, the future is concerning. If a successor to the throne lacks the necessary qualities, it will undoubtedly bring about great calamity.”
Listening silently to Heo Jo’s points, Maeng Sa-seong nodded and, looking towards Geunjeongjeon Hall, responded.
“Who wouldn’t know that? His Majesty must surely be aware of it too. The problem is that despite this, he persists in his stubbornness.”
* * *
Hyang was also aware of the issue.
“The foremost among the Three Bonds is the bond between ruler and subject… Father must be aware of this…”
Ultimately, Hyang sought an audience with King Sejong.
“What brings you here? It’s unusual for you to come to me first.”
“I apologize for the intrusion.”
“Alright, what’s the matter? But let me forewarn you, I have neither time nor budget to spare.”
A fleeting smile crossed Hyang’s face at King Sejong’s jest before fading.
“I’ve come to discuss the recent proclamation you issued, Father.”
“The proclamation? There were no errors in it, were there?”
As King Sejong continued to jest, Hyang’s tone became more serious.
“Father, surely you understand it’s not about typographical errors? While the Three Bonds and Five Relationships are fundamental duties, they could create a trap that might ensnare even a king.”
At Hyang’s words, King Sejong smiled and spoke.
“You’re referring to the bond between ruler and subject and the righteousness between them, aren’t you?”
“Why would you say that?”
Hyang’s expression grew even more serious, realizing that King Sejong had spoken with intention.
Despite Hyang’s earnest demeanor, King Sejong remained composed in his response.
“There are several reasons, but two stand out most prominently. The first is to liberate women from the shackles that bind them. For Joseon to progress further, we need more talented individuals. That means if a woman is talented, she must be recognized as such. However, those with vested interests find it hard to accept new entrants. When the time comes, those lacking in ability but full of greed will use ‘A Woman Must Follow Her Husband’, ‘The Three Obediences’, and the ‘Seven Detestable Sins’ to block progress. Even now, there are many women who bear the responsibility of providing for their households.”
“That makes sense.”
Hyang nodded in agreement with King Sejong’s point. It was common to see women taking on the role of breadwinner for their families due to war or disease. Even among those working in the palace, there were many such cases.
With Hyang convinced, King Sejong moved on to the second reason.
“The second reason is to prevent incompetent individuals from ascending to the throne of Joseon and ruling over it. As Ryu Jeong-hyeon said, no one can guarantee that tyrants like Jie of Xia and Zhou of Shang will not emerge. Even if not a tyrant, if someone who can’t even uphold the Three Bonds and Five Relationships ascends to the throne, can Joseon truly be safeguarded? In such cases, the king must be replaced.”
King Sejong paused briefly, his gaze drifting into the distance.
“For the sake of the royal family, the people, and for Joseon itself, such individuals must not ascend to the throne.”
“Do you think the ministers have realized this?”
At Hyang’s question, King Sejong chuckled and replied.
“By now, they probably have some inkling. They are smart people, after all.”
* * *
After concluding the conversation with King Sejong and exiting the Gangnyeongjeon Hall, Hyang turned towards the Eastern Palace, then paused to look back in the direction of Gangnyeongjeon Hall, situated beyond Geunjeongjeon Hall.
After a moment of contemplation, Hyang shook their head in disbelief and turned away.
“Truly a formidable figure.”
* * *
Note 1: In the Confucian cultural sphere before modern times, this term refers to the moral norms specifying the status and roles of women. Known as the Three Obediences and Four Virtues.
Source: Encyclopedia of Korean National Culture
Note 2: A set of seven grounds from Confucian ideology during the Joseon Dynasty that justified a husband in divorcing his wife.
Source: Encyclopedia of Korean National Culture